New Historicism in “The Lottery”: Cold War Anxieties

“The Lottery” is a rather well known short story written by Shirley Jackson. The story revolves around a village performing their annual “lottery” that essentially decides who is going to be sacrificed so that the town will have a good harvest. The story was written in 1948 which locates it a few years after the end of World War II and in the beginning stages of the Cold War. This is a time when anxieties about the conflict are skyrocketing in both countries.

Simply locating the story within a timeframe is not enough for new Historicism though, as its goal is more complex. Tyson describes one of the ways new Historicism is distinguished from the traditional “New historicism is concerned not with historical events as events, but with the ways in which events are interpreted, with historical discourses, with ways of seeing the world and modes of meaning”(Tyson 278). “The Lottery” focuses on the anxieties and events surrounding the Cold War and Jackson uses them to show the  conflict and discourse between the U.S. government, and the average U.S. citizen of the time.

Shirley Jackson's "The Lottery"

The way that the lottery functions is that one of many strips of paper is marked with a black dot, and then they are all put into a specific black box which has been used for years, and then the next day the box is drawn from to select a family, and then a family member. The “winner” of the lottery is then stoned to death by every man, woman, and child of the village together. This system is the closest thing there is to an authority or system of government in the story. It is mentioned that there are other villages and that these villages also partake in the lottery, so it is not just a random phenomena. The lottery may reflect a general anxiety and distrust in fellow citizens felt among all at that time, but I believe it more specifically is referring to the government’s distrust among its population and those in power, and the beginning of Mccarthyism. The government was seeking to maintain an idealised version of the United States and the “American Lifestyle™” and through their attempts at protecting their conceptualization of the world, harmful laws and legal events occured. The villagers, on the other hand, are simply “victims of the machine” and only want to survive, and have enough crop to survive. Among the villagers there are even those who distrust the lottery and wish to end it “‘They do say,’ Mr. Adams said to Old Man Warner, who stood next to him, ‘that over in the north village they're talking of giving up the lottery’” (Jackson). Old Man Warner promptly replies that “There’s always been a lottery”(Jackson) and dismisses him. The villagers only partake in the lottery because they feel trapped, they have never known a life without it and believe that if they do not participate they will have insufficient crops to feed themselves. The villagers take part in the lottery for survival. Jackson interprets the U.S. population’s fear at the time of the potential conflict and contrasts it against the government’s idealized values and willfulness to strike against its own people through the conflict between the villagers and the tradition of the lottery. “‘It isn't fair, it isn't right,’ Mrs. Hutchinson screamed, and then they were upon her” (Jackson).

Communist Pigs: New Historicism in Animal Farm.

Tyson interprets New Historicism as what happens when we read a historical account and ask ourselves: “what does thus account tell us about the political and ideological conflicts of the culture that produced and read the account?” (Tyson 268). When New Historicism is applied to literary texts Tyson states that these texts are often viewed as “cultural artifacts that can tell us something about the interplay of discourses, the web of social meanings, operating in the time and place in which the text was written” (Tyson 277). When pondering both of these topics, the first example that came to my mind was George Orwell’s famous novel: Animal Farm. At first glance, Orwell’s novel seems to be about a bunch of animals who overthrow their farmer, fight for control, and ultimately just end up in a situation worse than what they came from. In a nutshell, that’s it; but if you do a deeper reading of the novel and apply New Historicist thought to it, traces of communism come out from the framework.

When we read the novel while keeping in mind “the political and ideological conflicts of the culture that produced” it and asking what the “interplay of discourses” within it might be we see the plucky pig leaders, Napoleon and Snowball in a different light. Written in 1945, a time when communism was striking fear in the hearts of many people throughout the world, Animal farm perfectly fits into the social discourse of post WWII/Cold war era Russia. The overthrow that the animals partake in against the humans is often seen as parallel to the communist revolution, and the pig that starts the revolution, Old Major, is often compared to Vladimir Lenin, the leader of the revolution in Russia. We also see reflections of other communist Russian leaders such as Joseph Stalin (Napoleon) and Leon Trovsky (Snowball) in the pig leaders who take over after Old Major’s death. We slowly start to see the discourse of communist Russia and the communist revolution play out through the characters of the animals, something that was heavy on many people’s hearts at the time of Animal Farm’s publication.

Thus, when reading Animal Farm with a new historicist point of view, we view it as a reflection of the political conflicts of communism in Russia in the 1940s. We see the “web of social meanings” in the way the pigs lead the animals in revolt, the way Napoleon overthrows his partner snowball, and in the way he changes the “Principles of Animalism” from their original purposes to a more sinister interpretation. By the end of the book, one pig has taken over the whole farm, (kind of like Stalin took over, but let’s not name names….) and the animals can’t see any difference in their post revolution farm from the pre-revolution version. This strikes a lot of similarities with communism at the time, because it certainly was nothing like anyone expected it to be. Just like communism spread and overtook several countries through one leader, the corruption of the pig Napoleon spread throughout the farm and he banished anyone who tired to stop him. Talk about a thirst for power. Overall, Animal Farm can be read in a new historicist light by the way in which it reflects the communist discourse of the time in which it was written (and takes the term "communist pigs" to a whole different level).

A Queer Theory Reading of Disney’s Mulan

            The animated film Mulan, released in 1998 by Disney, centers around a young Chinese girl who saves her father from being drafted into the army by taking the guise of a young man. The children’s film is based on the Chinese legend of Hua Mulan, a girl who also takes her father’s place in the army and goes to war for her country. A striking difference between the legend and the film, however, is that iterations of the folktale illustrate that Hua Mulan never claimed to be man; she went to war as a woman because she got bored of weaving, was victorious, and then returned home to continue weaving. Alternatively, Disney’s film focuses on a young girl who doesn’t fit in with her environment and is uncomfortable with the activities prescribed to her gender by her culture. Viewers follow Mulan and witness her question the masculine and female binary as she consistently performs somewhere in between the spectrum. A queer theory reading of Mulan shows how the film is capable of challenging the cultural notions of masculine and feminine and implicates the limitations of gender roles.

            The very beginning of the film introduces the customs and pageantry surrounded with becoming the ideal bride which establishes a role for women in society to the viewer. During the song “Honor To Us All,” Mulan is bathed, clothed, and painted with white makeup, rouge, and lip colour to show the elaborate process women must go through to be considered in good taste and desirable. Throughout the song, Mulan looks uncomfortable and lost as her elders continue to groom her making her appear more feminine and passive. When Mulan sees her reflection in the hand mirror presented to her, she is visibly shaken because she does not recognize the woman she sees in the mirror as being her. The makeup and clothes she is dressed in act as a metaphor for the mask she wears to hide her true identity. This instance contributes to our knowledge of queer work because it is akin to the roles people must perform when they do not fall into the category of gender roles or sexual identity. External expectations complicate the ability for individuals to self-actualize as is clear with Mulan. Ultimately, Mulan is acting to “keep [her] father standing tall” and bring honour to her family.

After being rejected by the matchmaker and disappointing her family, Mulan sings the song “Reflection” in which she laments her inability to be who she truly is. The sentiments she expresses are those longing to “show the world what’s inside [her] heart” and to escape “a world where [she has] to hide [her] heart and what [she] believe[s] in.” The imagery used in “Reflection” shows half of Mulan’s face without makeup (masculinity) and the other half painted (femininity) to show the binary opposition existing on the spectrum; queer theory works to break down these opposites. The lyrics of the song coupled with the image of Mulan’s face offer a look into the struggle of those who identify as genderqueer often endure because it shows conflict in coming to terms with one’s own identity. This process is made more complex when one identifies contrary to the expectations of society. More often than not, these individuals are met with judgement and vehement opposition. This is especially true in Mulan’s case where the punishment for a woman impersonating a man in the army is death.

                                           

The film explores other areas of queer theory such as homosocial behavior. When Mulan assumes the role of Ping, she develops an intimate but non-sexual relationship with General Li Shang whom she saves from death at the film’s climax. The initial relationship between both Shang and Ping at the training camp is one of tension. In many cases the tension is homoerotic, especially when a shirtless Shang stares at Ping. A queer theory reading likely would attribute this tension to the problematics of sexuality or sexual identity. Sheng’s song “I’ll Make A Man Out Of You” indicate he subscribes to heteronormative culture. His attraction to Ping conflicts with his heterosexual/hyper-masculine self-schema. As the film progresses, Shang grows closer to Ping. After Ping is revealed to be Mulan, a woman, Sheng is disgusted with himself and with the deception, realizing his sexuality may not be as clear-cut as he had once thought. At the end of the film, Sheng and Mulan are suggested to be romantically involved after she returns to life as a woman. This example illustrates that Sheng was appealed to by the masculine qualities of Ping/Mulan and continued to pursue Mulan in spite of this. This situation presented by the movie may serve as an effective example of a deconstruction of rigid binaries that society has constructed for women/men and homosexuals/heterosexuals that are a focus of queer theory.

                           

Other instances in the film such as the communal male bath, the “effeminate” male advisor to the emperor, and male warriors in drag promote themes that question what gender roles and human sexuality serve as a whole. Offered here is a taste of how these themes are initially explored in Disney’s Mulan. Upon closer examination of these other situations, a more complex look into queer theory can be obtained. Furthermore, this film can offer the opportunity to discuss the issue of “gender is performance” and transgendered identity. It is under these lenses one can learn how a person can have multiple identities rather than be limited to categorization. As a children’s film under this light, Mulan has the potential to facilitate an appropriate discussion and education about acceptance and diversity at a young age.

 Song Lyrics: Mulan, www.fpx.de/fp/Disney/Lyrics/Mulan.html. 

               

"The Two": How Lesbianism Challenges the Phallocentric Worldview

"The Two" an examination of a story from The Women of Brewster Place 

Women in our society are treated as objects with which to reaffirm the phallocentric male ego, so often that it’s hard to remember the deep vastness of women’s lives go beyond the men who define themselves by filling a hole that exists only in the intrigue of their own minds. Given the pervasiveness of the patriarchy, it’s rare to find even a single female character who isn’t defined in relation to the men in her life, much less a whole book filled with their stories, but that is exactly what Gloria Naylor gifts us with her debut novel The Women of Brewster Place. The stories of seven minority women defined by the healing bonds that form among them. I could and would happily discuss the ways in which the Lesbian Continuum defines each of these relationships, but in the interest of conciseness let’s focus our microscope upon Lorraine and her partner Theresa, the only ‘openly’ lesbian characters in the novel and the ways in which their relationship challenges the phallocentrism of the society in which the story is set.

Lorraine isn’t by any stretch of the imagination the ideal strong female character(™), who opposes masculine domination. Her life just isn’t about men. Since coming out and losing the support of her family in the process, her life has been geared toward her passions: being an educator and Theresa’s happiness. Unfortunately the two are at times at odds, due to the era (the 1970’s) she lives in and the conservative crusade, a witch-hunt against LGBT teachers in primary education, that began within it. She’s caught in the Epistemology of the closet, wanting to be out with Theresa (an advocate of unapologetically being who you are), but having to stay put behind the closet doors to avoid the social and financial ramifications of her orientation. She already lost a job to discrimination, once she simply can’t risk it again. Really that’s how they end up in Brewster. It was supposed to be a safe place to hide, from a disapproving society.

Clip of Lorraine and Theresa The Women of Brewster Place movie adaptation by Oprah

But even there in the outskirts, phallocentrism reigned in the image of one, C.C. Baker. A boy whose entire self worth rested between his legs.

"C.C. Baker was greatly disturbed by the thought of Lorraine. He knew of only one way to deal with women other than his mother. Before he had learned exactly how women gave birth, he knew how to please or punish or extract favors from them by the execution of what lay curled behind his fly. It was his lifeline to the part of his being that sheltered his self-respect. And the thought of any woman who lay beyond the length of its power was a threat."

"A threat" to the existing power structure, for how can a man assert his worth, his control over someone who doesn't fall prey to that which they have allowed to define their person-hood. I'd like to say that this quiet imbalance of C.C. Baker's world didn't have lasting ramifications on anyone beyond himself, but the system seeks to crush all those who defy it. Lorraine's life was not about men, but her society was a male dominated one. C.C. and his little crew hunted her down and raped her. She died from internal injuries. They had ripped her seam from seam, all to prove the power of their pathetic little penises.
          The world is an ugly place. The Patriarchy is ugly, it compresses men and women alike down to nothing more than their genitals and perpetuates a cycle of violence against women. That's why novels like The Women of Brewster Place and characters like Lorraine and Theresa matter so much, because they say we are more than a hole, we are people.

New Historicism in "Do Not Stand at My Grave and Weep"

“Do Not Stand at My Grave and Weep”

by Mary Elizabeth Frye

Do not stand at my grave and weep

I am not there; I do not sleep.

I am a thousand winds that blow,

I am the diamond glints on snow,

I am the sun on ripened grain,

I am the gentle autumn rain.

When you awaken in the morning's hush

I am the swift uplifting rush

Of quiet birds in circled flight.

I am the soft stars that shine at night.

Do not stand at my grave and cry,

I am not there; I did not die.

New Historicism in “Do Not Stand at My Grave and Weep”

Mary Elizabeth Frye’s “Do Not Stand at My Grave and Weep,” arguably the most famous poem about death in human history, benefits from a New Historicist reading because it was based on her personal experiences, written for a friend in need, and revealed in a particularly precarious, poignant time.

            In order to get to the real business of New Historicism—figuring out how a work comments on and relates to the historical and sociocultural contexts behind it—interpreters first have to know what those contexts are (“New Historicism”). Historically, this 1932 masterpiece was created in an unsafe global setting. In Germany, there was growing anti-Semitic unrest resulting from the prolonged national economic crises produced by World War I beginning nearly two decades earlier (“What Happened in 1932”). The United States was no stranger to financial trouble, either, with the Great Depression lasting from 1929 through 1939 in full swing and unemployment affecting an astonishing 24 percent of the total domestic population (“What Happened in 1932”). Meanwhile, in India, paragon of peace Mahatma Ghandi was just settling into his cozy jail cell after the current British regime, which did not agree with his plans for Indian independence, had performed one of the many arrests that would define his story (“What Happened in 1932”). To top it all off, in Russia, agricultural policies were causing mass starvation and death (“What Happened in 1932”). Discrimination, poverty, oppression, and suffering were a common international theme.

            Consequently, then, the socially relevant background Frye provided, in being well-equipped to live in such a difficult era, contributed significantly to her concise masterpiece. Orphaned at age three, she had been compelled to endure harsh struggle prior to finding happiness as a successful housewife and florist, developing both noteworthy compassion and resilience (Bates). She and her husband hosted their German Jewish friend Margaret Schwarzkopf at their home the year she suddenly became a poet (Bates). While staying, Schwarzkopf, subsequent to discovering that her mother was severely ill in Germany, felt distraught over being unable to travel to her side in the midst of the reigning unstable political conditions—especially the resentment against Jews fermenting in that country (Bates). Once her mother died due to her sickness, the poor woman told Frye that she wished she could be at the graveside to shed a tear there (Bates). Since Frye understood her visitor’s exquisite pain and the effort implicated in continuing with life following tragedy, she was immediately inspired to jot down “Do Not Stand at My Grave and Weep” on a brown paper shopping bag (Bates).

            Of course, although Frye did not intend to design a masterwork with stunning kairos—a soothing reminder that the memories of those who have passed on remain with their surviving loved ones, or “[do] not die” (Frye 12), and are resurrected in simple environmental instances of beauty—that helped to heal broken hearts around the world, she did (Bates). In gracefully expressing that the happinesses the dead have nurtured in their grieving companions are brought to mind by everyday spectacles in nature, like light sparkling on snow (Frye 4), she gave them a new perspective with which to withstand their challenges: an acknowledgement that, despite the fact that someone dearly beloved dying, and deep misfortunes as a whole, must sometimes be accepted, how survivors move on is a personal choice. Their most positive, and likely ultimately healthy and productive, option is to celebrate the time that they were blessed with the deceased’s presence—smile at the small miracle of a soft patter of rain outside their windows (Frye 6). Frye’s writing to comfort and encourage a buddy ended up being a universal coping tool.

            Jews in Germany already starting to confront the unearned bitterness that would later, in the unspeakable horrors of the Holocaust characterizing World War II, hurt them still more; destitute families in shanty towns across America; mistreated Indians crying for a nonviolent hero championing freedom and forced to exist behind bars; and overworked Russians praying for their next meals each benefitted from the determined hope that Frye communicates in “Do Not Stand at My Grave and Weep.” And in the twenty-first century, diverse nations are continuing to do so.

Works Cited

Bates, Jordan. “The Most Celebrated Meditation on Death in Human History.” HighExistence.com, highexistence.com/do-not-stand-at-my-grave-and-weep-mary-elizabeth-frye-death-poem/.

Frye, Mary Elizabeth. “‘Do Not Stand at My Grave and Weep.’” FamilyFriendPoems.com, www.familyfriendpoems.com/poem/do-not-stand-by-my-grave-and-weep-by-mary-elizabeth-frye.

“New Historicism Introduction.” Shmoop.com, Shmoop, www.shmoop.com/new-historicism/.

“What Happened in 1932: Important News and Events, Key Technology, and Popular Culture.” ThePeopleHistory.com, www.thepeoplehistory.com/1932.html.

New Historicism and it's tackle on Uncle Tom's Cabin

New Historicism, according to Lois Tyson in her book: “critical theory today”, is the study of “The history of stories cultures tell themselves about themselves” (pg. 274) or even more cynically “the history of lies cultures tell themselves” (274). Furthermore, literary text of the past are “cultural artifacts that can tell us something about the interplay of discourses,  the web of social meanings, operating in the time and place in which the text was written.” (277) This is significantly evident in Harriet Beecher Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin.

Uncle Tom’s Cabin was written in 1852  America when slavery was still an unsavoury common practice. The book describes various sub plots, such as Eliza’s journey to freedom, which more often than not intertwine with other plots, such as Uncle Tom sacrificing himself for the greater progression of everyone else’s journey. However, the book can be analysed with a new historicist eye to see how black people were portrayed at the time.

The main character Uncle Tom, despite being a fully grown and strong man, is depicted as being very childlike. This is evident when Stowe describes him as: “Tom, who had the soft impressible nature of his kindly race, ever yearning toward the simple and childlike.” Therefore Stowe, as a white author, not only individually describes Tom, but also his “race”, as being simple and childlike. Which in turn, a new historicist can interpret as the general opinion of society at the time.

Furthermore, Stowe portrays the majority of black characters as childlike and uneducated through the way they talk; we can especially see this when the likes of Andy and Sam talk. For example, when following the scene where Haley’s horse has gone running off, Andy is talking to Sam and says ““Lor, I seed you… an’t you an old hoss, Sam?”” (51) Here we see “Lor” instead of Lord; “an’t” instead of “aren't” and “hoss” instead of horse. These words display rather broken English which could be described as something as simple as a Kentucky (where the book is set) accent, yet the white characters speak virtually perfect English. Therefore this reinforce the social and cultural opinions of the time.

Tyson explains discourse as “a social language created by particular cultural conditions at a particular time and place, and it expresses a particular way of understanding human experience” (270). Therefore this could mean that the way the black characters talk is of their own making, to help create their own “social language.” Or from the white author/ audience’s “culture” creating “conditions” to help them seem more superior to the black characters. The latter Tyson hints at as he says “The word discourse draws attention to the role of language as the vehicle of ideology,” (270) therefore the white ideology of the time would suggest their superiority over the black race and thus resulting in the black characters seeming more ‘dumbed’ down compared to the way the white characters tend to speak.

Another way black characters are displayed as childlike is through the dependency on their white masters. Uncle Tom has been told of his immediately selling and has been presented with the opportunity to run away but instead decides not to: “I an’t going.. Mas’r always found me on the spot- he always will.” (44) This could be interpreted by the community of the time as Tom’s submissive and childlike dependency on the white characters (his owner Mr. Shelby).

Cixous' Écriture Féminine and Molly Bloom

In her 1976 essay "The Laugh of the Medusa" Cixous envisions and exemplifies "women's writing" which is one devoid of phallogocentric tropes, free from the restrictive logic that governs Western literary texts, and most of all a writing which reflects the female unconscious, an infinite mental realm, "the place where the repressed managed to survive," which to sublate will incur, "the emancipation of the marvelous text of her self," (Cixous 880). Conceptualizing what this kind of writing might look like, other than that which is exhibited by Cixous, is difficult as it is supposed to function as an "antilogos weapon" that, "will always surpass the discourse that regulates the phallocentric system," (883). However, Cixous does provide some authors who have approached this hypothetical idea, namely Genet and Joyce¹ ,the latter of whom will occupy my focus, since Cixous claims that Ulysses's Penelope episode has carried Joyce's magnum opus, "off beyond any book and toward the new writing," (884).  Hopefully by comparing the stylistics of Cixous' essay and Molly Bloom's transcendent meditation² , as well as considering the criteria put forth by Cixous in her essay, I'll be able to demystify what an Écriture Féminine might look like, or at least divine some essential features.
The most striking resemblance between Cixous' essay and Joyce's heroine might be termed their "stream of consciousness" styles, which is likely an injudicious use of the term in the case of the former, but I assume it was necessary for Cixous to be less freely associative and use actual punctuation since the essay intends to be primarily expository. The real point here being that both texts share a similar atmosphere brought on by their structure; both have a cyclic nature about them, alluding to an idea then leaving the thought unfinished until many pages later which establishes a certain repetition of key phrases. For instance in Joyce we see Molly musing at various points over Andalusian girls and the slow build up of her affirmative refrain (perhaps representing the female orgasm?), and in Cixous we have at first the subtle allusions to women as monsters culminating in the Medusa comparison, as well as the motif she establishes between women and various fluids like blood, water, oil, amniotic fluid, and vaginal discharge. Additionally neither are particularly concerned with sentence-by-sentence cohesion, which is to say that both are markedly bereft of transitions, although peculiarly this lack does not effect the overall "logic" or more accurately, semantic intentionality of the texts. Furthermore both texts display an unabashed representation of female sexuality at times engendering an intentional discomfort in the reader due to the text's lack of censorship/euphemism, if only to bring the reader face-to-face with their own misconceptions. The effect of this is two-fold: on one hand it's an extremely effective middle-finger to phallocentric psychoanalysts, to quote Molly Bloom, "O let them all go and smother themselves for the fat lot I care," (Joyce 749), and more abstractly this preoccupation with the feminine mystique gives the writing its characteristic rhythm, its musicality, its lilt, which for both Cixous and Molly, is a latent quality of femininity - "my body knows unheard-of songs," (Cixous 876) - this is how both texts ebb and flow, both rising toward ebullient ecstasy yet also sustaining a composure during stasis.
These considerations bring me to the most notable and seemingly essential quality of a female writing - the fact that it seems necessary for it to pour out from the unconscious, for apparently Joyce felt it imperative to invent an entirely new kind of writing in order to do any justice to his surprise heroine. It should also be noted that the primary trope in Ulysses up until the Penelope episode is pastiche i.e. mimetic art, which Joyce felt was adequate for Leopold and Stephen Dedalus, although clearly insufficient for Molly. Likewise Cixous proclaims "infinite woman" who has detached her self from the finite world, the world of the body, fearing, "the fantastic tumult of her drives," for to embrace that which stirs inside her would be suicide. The only way to regain this unique empire is to inscribe the Écriture Féminine, to replace the phallus with the omphalos and break the surrogate syntactical umbilical cord that threads together the fragile masculinist logocentrism.

---

1 It should be noted here that while Cixous favors a feminine essentialism which would later incite its own criticism, that she does not however exempt male authors from the ability to accurately portray women. She just thinks it's quite rare.^↩ 2 For lack of a better term. Like many episodes in Ulysses this episode evades simplistic description.^↩